Misogyny, Impurity & Period Poverty: The Menstruating Woman in South Asia

Menstruation is female monthly bleeding due to the shedding of uterine lining and an unfertilized egg. Every month, the female body provides an opportunity to become pregnant. The female reproductive system contains two ovaries. Each month, one of the ovaries will release an egg and present it to be fertilized, while uterine lining builds up in preparation for a potential pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilized, no pregnancy occurs and menstruation begins—the additional uterine lining built up sheds alongside the unfertilized egg, resulting in vaginal bleeding that lasts for around a week. This can either be the best or worst moment for a young, ethnic girl. Various cultures have different views on menstruation. While some consider menstruation to be a cause for celebration and a monumental step in a young girl’s life, many feel the opposite. A vast majority of cultures, especially South Asian, consider a menstruating woman to be in a state of impurity. The attitudes held toward menstruating women in these cultures have a systematic effect on their well-being and access to health resources, influencing public attitudes and government policies. Ultimately, cultural stigma and misogyny in South Asian countries severely impact the accessibility of menstrual products, reinforcing period poverty and limiting women’s autonomy over their health. Addressing menstrual inequality requires dismantling these deeply rooted stigmas, as they shape both public perception and government inaction regarding menstrual health policies. 

For context, menstruation is a process that occurs in biological females with a working reproductive system. Many people who identify as women do not menstruate, and likewise, there are many people who menstruate do not identify as women. For simplicity, the terms “woman” and “girls” will be used interchangeably with “menstruating people.” This is not to erase identities or to disregard those with different identities, but to simply provide a logical understanding of period poverty. 

There are several cultural beliefs held regarding menstruation and women in South Asia, many of which are rooted in religion and have existed for centuries. Islam and Hinduism, the two predominant religions of South Asia, have many beliefs that are the foundation for practices that isolate menstruating women and garner shame around an entirely natural process. Often in Islam, discrimination against women originates purely from the intersection of South Asian culture with Islamic beliefs, rather than the religion itself. In reality, the Islamic religion maintains female autonomy, importance, and equality. While the Quran, the Islamic holy book, denounces discrimination against and the mistreatment of women, it does emphasize the differences between the sexes. Without insinuating that women are inferior in any way, the Quran places much importance on these differences between sexes and relays how these differences define men's and women’s roles in society. Additionally, the Quran safeguards women’s rights and protects them from abuse (Hashim, 1999). However, the belief that men and women have different roles in society is often misrepresented and used as a twisted justification for gender inequality. Oftentimes, some Islamic societies, especially in South Asia, will misconstrue certain parts of the Quran in efforts to justify their patriarchal and misogynistic society. For example, some religious leaders will weaponize the Quran, stating that a woman’s role in life is to serve her husband. Parents will often be told that education will draw their daughters away from their role of being good wives, further exacerbating the lack of female education. Consequently, this can prevent girls from learning about what their bodies need and how to properly care for themselves (Ali et al., 2022). Ultimately, many Islamic countries will use their faith as reasoning to treat women as inherently less than, enabling their society and government to treat female issues, like menstruation, as unworthy of time, attention, and resources. 

Within Islamic practices, Muslim women cannot perform their five daily prayers or read a physical copy of the Quran while menstruating. This is because she is thought to be in a state of hadath al-akbar. This is the Arabic term for ritual impurity, indicating that the individual cannot properly perform the cleansing custom, wudu, that must be done prior to beginning prayer. Those in this state must perform an in-depth cleansing referred to as a ghusl. However, people who are menstruating remain in the state of hadath al-akbar and cannot even perform ghusl to become pure until menstruation ceases (Seyed Hosseini, 2018). For clarification, the term “ritual impurity” in this Islamic context signifies an inability to complete some religious practices, not a state of being “dirty.” During the month of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting to honor Allah (God), menstruating women cannot fast, as it puts their health at risk. This goes along with the Islamic rules that pregnant and menstruating women, people who are ill, and travelers are not required to fast to prioritize their health. However, many cultures have created such intense feelings of shame surrounding menstruation that oftentimes, women on their periods will rise with their families to eat suhoor, the meal prior to sunrise, with their families so no one knows of their menstruation. These women will then proceed to hide their food and drinks from their family throughout the day, pretending they are fasting. It is too shameful for the family to know they are on their period, despite being instructed by God that they are lawfully exempt (“‘Mama Why Aren’t You Praying?,’” 2019). The concept of haya in Islam only makes menstruation more difficult and is often blatantly used by men to express their dissatisfaction with menstruation being a commonplace topic of discussion. In Islam, haya is the concept of modesty, shyness, and decency. When women attempt to speak about menstruation publicly or try to treat periods as a normal occurrence, they are often scolded and told to remain quiet about these matters in the name of haya (“‘Mama Why Aren’t You Praying?,’” 2019). While this was not the intention of this Islamic principle, it is now used as a vessel to further silence women and perpetuate a sense of shame around female-specific issues. 

Similar to Islam, there are also many Hindu beliefs used for the same purposes. Dating back to Vedic times (1500-500 B.C.), when Indo-Aryan migration introduced many early Hindu beliefs into northern India, numerous myths emerged that portrayed menstruating women as “dirty” or “impure.” Menstruation is often related to the Hindu god, Lord Indra’s killing of Vritras. Vritras was a brahmin, or a member of the priestly caste in Hinduism, and was considered to be of great importance, so his murder was a great sin committed by Lord Indra. According to the Veda, the Hindu holy book, women are said to have taken upon a part of Lord Indra’s guilt by carrying the burden of menstruation each month (Garg & Anand, 2015). This belief is used to further justify the mistreatment and exclusion of menstruating women from religious practices. 

Comparable to the Islamic prohibition of menstruating women praying, Hinduism also does not permit menstruating women to perform prayers, take part in Hindu worship known as puja, touch holy books, or enter the temple. These practices lead to extreme feelings of exclusion, especially in young girls. Some Hindu values even maintain that women should remain indoors while menstruating and men should keep their distance from their menstruating wife, as women are not permitted to partake in society while impure (Cohen, 2020). For example, the Sabarimala Temple in Kerala, India, is a temple honoring a Hindu deity who had taken a vow of celibacy. For this reason, women between the ages of 10 and 50 years old—the average age range of menstruation—were not permitted to enter the temple as the state of menstruation was felt to contradict the deity’s celibacy pledge. Eventually, this ruling was overturned as it felt unlawful to ban women from the temple (Sabarimala Temple Entry, n.d.). Another manifestation of these values is the practice of Chhuapadi in Nepal, where women are exiled to reside in huts behind their houses while they are menstruating. On December 6, 2019, Parbati Buda Rawat, 21, was found dead in a menstruation hut, supposedly forced there by her brother-in-law (Vaughn, 2019). Many women, just like Parbati, have died due to this practice, further displaying the harm that menstrual stigma causes (Sen, 2019). 

Discrimination against women is intertwined through religion, education, family systems, and the economy in South Asian countries. Women raised in South Asian countries grow up in an environment of misogyny. This attitude is perpetuated by the importance of traditional values, with girls focusing on homemaking, while boys are encouraged to pursue education and work. This results in men heading their households and holding an inherent sense of importance. The superiority of men is further engrained in every aspect of life in South Asian countries such as Pakistan, where research revealed that the role of women in society is often reduced to that of a sexual object (Ali et al., 2022). Women are submissive to their husbands and act only as men please, with their identities long forgotten. Women’s feelings are aggravated by an extreme lack of education and financial independence. The male superiority is further enhanced by their role as the breadwinner of the family. Oftentimes, the birth of a son is celebrated much more than the birth of a daughter, raising daughters with a sense of inferiority. It is a never-ending, difficult cycle to break, with mothers and fathers instilling the same sexist behaviors they were raised with into their children. The misogyny in South Asian culture goes back many generations and is deeply ingrained in almost every custom (Ali et al., 2022). 

The Islamic and Hindu religious values discussed previously, combined with the misogynistic ideals already woven through South Asian societies, have created an extreme taboo around menstruation. Young girls and women feel afraid to speak about their periods and experience increased feelings of internalized shame surrounding menstruation (Jaafar et al., 2023). Menstruation is treated as dirty and shameful, and many young, South Asian girls feel that they must keep it a secret, even from their own families. Consequently, there is limited education on how to care for oneself in a clean and healthy way while menstruating. The secretive attitude surrounding menstruation is passed down through generations. For example, only 53% of adolescent girls in Bangladesh had heard of menstruation prior to their first period (School Girls in Bangladesh Learn That Periods Are Nothing to Be Ashamed of | UNICEF South Asia, n.d.). These factors make it difficult for women to access what they need to menstruate in a clean and safe environment. The reluctance to discuss period products due to the shame surrounding them causes an epidemic of period poverty. These cultural standards cause many other issues as well, such as how women carry the sole responsibility for birth control and, therefore, the blame for unintentional pregnancies. The problem is only aggravated by the lack of current feasible options for male birth control (Wang, 2022). However, not all problems can be addressed at once—a practical starting point is tackling period poverty and menstrual inequality.

Period poverty can be defined as the inability to access hygienic period products, sanitation facilities, and menstrual education for women of all ages (Jaafar et al., 2023). This can have lasting effects on young girls’ mental health. Girls have reported feelings of fear and shame due to accidental leakage or the smell of menstrual bleeding, as well as a fear of being teased and bullied by male classmates, leading to decreased school attendance while menstruating (Sumpter & Torondel, 2013). The stress and feelings of social isolation from these traumatic experiences can lead to depression and anxiety, further contributing to the likelihood of girls attending school less frequently or dropping out altogether (Jaafar et al., 2023). The lack of openness surrounding periods may cause young girls to internalize these feelings of shame and embarrassment, eventually stunting their emotional growth. Adolescence can be an emotionally vulnerable time, only further exposing young girls to harm by the stigma surrounding menstruation. Eventually, the cycle will continue—girls who do not feel comfortable speaking to their mothers about their periods will eventually become mothers who cannot teach their daughters about menstruation. With the absence of adequate resources and clean spaces, period poverty strips South Asian women of autonomy over their own health. They are unable to menstruate safely, cleanly, and without shame, and therefore, are forced to make choices that they may not feel comfortable with. The use of unsafe materials and the lack of conversation surrounding menstruation contribute to the secrecy of the menstrual process. Ultimately, the stigma surrounding menstruation in South Asian countries leads to an extreme lack of accessible, clean, and safe resources for girls and women. 

Similar to their mental health, period poverty can detrimentally affect the physical wellbeing of young girls. In countries like India, women report having few lockable spaces, like bathrooms, to change their menstrual products and have limited access to disposable period products. They often resort to using reusable rags that cannot be properly cleaned, leading to increased rates of infections such as bacterial vaginosis (BV) or urinary tract infections (UTIs) (Sumpter & Torondel, 2013). Over 77% of Indian girls and women have reported using rags like these, risking infection (Garg & Anand, 2015). Combined with the physical risks of BV and other vaginal infections, many girls also experience decreased mental health when they have difficulties dealing with their period. 

Along with societal and cultural stigma, wealth plays a large role in exacerbating period poverty and increasing the difficulty South Asian women face with menstruation. Many of the countries in South Asia—especially Pakistan and India—have extremely high levels of poverty. Not only does this make period products themselves unaffordable, but it makes accessing the aforementioned clean and lockable spaces near impossible. Furthermore, the level of poverty in these communities directly transfers to the quality of schools. Since many girls living in low-income areas are not able to access fresh period products or places to privately wash and dry a reusable menstrual rag at school, increased period poverty can further lead to decreased school attendance associated with menstruation (Sumpter & Torondel, 2013). In Bangladesh, one in three girls skips school during her menstrual period, simply to avoid the difficulties of handling menstruation in schools with inadequate resources. It becomes too difficult and uncomfortable to attend school while using rough and dirty reusable rags as menstrual pads, with no clean and private areas to wash them (School Girls in Bangladesh Learn That Periods Are Nothing to Be Ashamed of | UNICEF South Asia, n.d.). Like other impoverished countries, in India, the distress of menstruation led to over 23% of young girls dropping out of school when their first period started (Garg & Anand, 2015).

Furthermore, from what is obtainable in terms of period products in South Asia, availability drastically decreases from urban areas such as New Delhi, Mumbai, and Karachi to rural areas. In the cities, women are more easily able to find pads, tampons, and other period supplies, as well as clean and lockable spaces for hygienic purposes. In the villages, some women are reduced to using rough, reusable rags or husk (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). In India, 88% of women were forced to use other materials such as newspapers, husk, dried sand, and ashes to collect their period blood (Garg & Anand, 2015). Additionally, as women in South Asia are raised to serve and value their family before themselves, many will forgo purchasing necessary period products, viewing them as luxury items, to ensure the family is still able to get what they need—food, milk, etc. (Young People Are Stamping out Period Stigma, n.d.). The government also lacks funds that can be placed towards programs improving period poverty. 

The stigma surrounding menstruation, coupled with being low-income, leads to the main cause of period poverty in South Asia: a lack of government policies. The best and most efficient way to address the period poverty epidemic is to create policies that remove barriers to accessible and affordable materials for menstruation. Some of these policies could include removing any gendered taxes on period products, establishing clean and lockable spaces in educational and work settings, and making products available in rural areas.

Due to the cultural stigma and lack of money, menstruation and period poverty often go overlooked by policymakers and are treated as unimportant. Similar to the way that many South Asian countries treat women as inferior, menstruation is treated as a less-than issue, as it disproportionately affects women. In the UN’s 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), goals three, four, five, and eight address the need to create and implement policies that ensure a better future for everyone. Specifically, the third SDG places importance on health and wellness, while the fifth clearly states that gender equality must be obtained through the efforts of the government (| Sustainable Development, n.d.). While access to sexual and reproductive healthcare is covered under Target 5.6, not enough work has been done to achieve these goals. Prioritizing menstrual inequality and period poverty would help the UN get closer to their goal of gender equality. Many women are forced to miss work and school due to the shame surrounding menstruation and the lack of spaces and products in professional settings. In SDGs four and eight, the ability to secure employment and financial independence is highlighted (| Sustainable Development, n.d.).

By making professional and educational spaces more inclusive to menstruating girls and women and eliminating the barrier that periods pose, secure employment and financial independence can be all the more achievable for women. (Mann & Byrne, 2023). South Asian governments are currently allocating less than five percent of their government expenditures to public health. Still, only a fraction of this already minuscule amount of money will be targeted towards menstrual hygiene (Perera et al., 2024). The essence of a government is to care for its citizens—by ignoring the plight of menstruating women throughout South Asia, governments are ignoring the needs of the people who make up the backbone of their societies. Additionally, these countries are decreasing their own economic productivity due to female workers who must miss work while menstruating. However, to motivate the government to make changes, the cultural stigma must be dismantled. As of right now, there is limited government funding for menstrual health and education programs, as well as an extreme lack of necessary public infrastructure (clean, accessible, and private bathrooms). A 2015 report

relayed that in New Delhi, there are around 132 public toilets available for women, a measly 8% of the 1534 accessible to men (Garg & Anand, 2015). A concerted effort is required to bridge this gap for women. 

Some South Asian countries have begun to work towards a level of equity regarding period poverty, but there is still much to be done. For example, India introduced a 12% GST (goods and services tax) on period products in 2017. With 12% being such a high and extreme tax in comparison to other personal hygiene products, especially those targeted towards men, activists spent a long time fighting to encourage the government to abolish the tax. In 2018, the Indian government ended this tax, increasing the availability of period products for lower-income women (India Scraps Tampon Tax after Campaign, 2018). Additionally, it can be helpful for South Asian countries to take inspiration from others who have taken monumental steps towards maintaining menstrual equality. One such country is Scotland, which under the Period Products (Free Provision) Act of 2021, legally requires local authorities and educators to ensure that period products are easily accessible and free of charge. Those in need must be able to obtain the products in a non-humiliating and respectful manner, and a multitude of options (pads, tampons, etc.) must be made available. Scotland’s government has invested a great amount of time and money in raising awareness regarding menstruation and related inequalities, ensuring that its citizens are able to easily access period products. With over £47 million, or $60 million, invested in this cause since 2018, they have made menstrual health a priority. The country’s efforts have extended beyond itself, with the Scottish government providing funding to countries like Malawi and Rwanda to increase the availability of period products, as well as donating reusable products for schoolgirls (Free Period Products, n.d.).

Similar to this, Ontario, Canada, announced in October of 2021 that the provincial government was planning on distributing six million free period products annually to Ontarian schools, aiming to improve the lives of the near two million students in public elementary and middle schools (“The Cost of a Period,” n.d.). While Scotland and Canada are progressing, Kenya has a similar situation to South Asia. In Kenya and Sub-Saharan Africa, many girls miss school every month due to their period and inability to access menstrual hygiene products. Consequently, the Kenyan government repealed the 16% VAT (value added tax) on menstrual products and began allocating up to $3 million per year to fund free sanitary pads in schools in particularly low-income communities (How Kenya Became A World Leader In Menstrual Pad Distribution : Goats and Soda : NPR, n.d.). While such large measures may not be currently feasible for some South Asian economies, this inspires a direction for these governments to move in. South Asia must make menstrual hygiene management a priority. A government cannot simply ignore the dire needs of half of its population—change is needed. 

To gain the necessary government funding to make period products available, conversations surrounding taboo topics and activism are extremely important. While these conversations still need to increase in South Asian countries, some individuals have taken the situation into their own hands. For example, the activist Tanzila Khan is doing indispensable work to end period poverty in Pakistan. After living with a disability, experiencing extreme period poverty, and having a difficult time accessing necessary period products herself, she launched Girlythings.pk, a website and company focused on ending period poverty. With her website, Khan offers menstrual hygiene workshops and focus groups as well as period products that can be delivered right to your doorstep. She speaks on making girls feel welcome and ending the sexism-based exclusion of menstruating women (Girlythings.Pk, n.d.). Similarly, BRAC, an international development nonprofit founded in Bangladesh in 1972, has many initiatives targeted towards improving MHM, or menstrual hygiene management. The organization’s WASH—water, sanitation, and hygiene—initiatives have provided up to 2.1 million adolescent girls with separate washroom facilities that included menstrual hygiene necessities (Shuvra, 2021). Another example is the work of Arunachalam Muruganatham, a man in India who created a low-cost, menstrual pad-making machine. When he realized that his wife was suffering, using dirty rags to take care of her period each month, Muruganatham knew there was work to be done. Despite the stigma surrounding menstruation and the ridicule Muruganatham faced for getting himself involved in women’s issues, he worked tirelessly to create a way for low-income women living in rural areas to easily access sanitary pads. His work was well displayed in the documentary Period. End of Sentence. directed by Rayka Zehtabchi (Ayyar, 2019). These activists chose to ignore the stigma and shame around menstruation and work towards providing resources for women who desperately need them. Organizations and people like Tanzila Khan, BRAC, and Arunachalam Muruganatham, who commit to the work of bettering period poverty, will bring monumental change—it is this change which will push governments to devote funding to end menstrual inequality. 

Public efforts to increase conversation surrounding menstruation and decrease shame can help create necessary change. The implementation of sexual health education in schools will help many young girls feel more comfortable with the changes they may be experiencing in their bodies. By reducing the embarrassment women feel and increasing dialogue surrounding menstruation, it will become easier to deduce what must be done to abolish period poverty and ease the lives of young girls who are just entering puberty and beginning menstruation. While the efforts may be started by women, it is men who must carry this torch, as they comprise the majority of South Asian governments (Women in Politics, 2023). The work of Arunachalam Muruganatham should be an inspiration to South Asian men on how they must open themselves up to the problems women face. After years of shame, a joint effort between men and women is necessary to rid South Asian countries of menstrual stigma. While there are many actions that governments and citizens can take to end the stigma surrounding menstruation and, consequently, period poverty, the real issue will remain. Like a weed that will incessantly grow back until the root is pulled out, issues like period poverty will continue to return until the foundation allowing inequality and discrimination against women is dismantled. Misogyny is the cause of problems like this and will continue to be until it is fully addressed. 

Cultural reform is necessary in South Asia, beginning with increasing female education. In South Asian culture, men first encourage women to remain uneducated in the name of religious values, instructing them to focus on their God-given duty of serving their husbands (Ali et al., 2022). Many men then take advantage of women’s lack of knowledge to further strengthen their hold on the patriarchy—it becomes quite easy to enforce rules on someone who does not know enough to resist (Ejaz & Ara, 2011). This cycle will continue repeating itself unless it is stopped forcefully and women begin to fight back. Ultimately, education is one of the most crucial steps towards fighting against misogyny and achieving gender equality. Increased education will lead to more economic prosperity, improved health, increased female employment, and consequently, financial freedom for future generations (Hamid & Ahmed, 2011). Religious reform, or at least, the rise of more female religious leaders, can also assist with

this. All these outcomes raise women up, building their platform and giving women the courage they need to be open and speak about formerly taboo topics like menstruation within government and social settings.. 

Menstrual inequality in South Asia is not a monolith and cannot be encapsulated in a one-size-fits-all mentality. While destigmatization of menstruation is a necessary goal, the work does not end there; instead, intersectionality is the next step. Achieving menstrual equality is incredibly important, but it is also necessary to realize that there are numerous individuals who are not necessarily included by this movement. There are many nonbinary and transgender individuals who may not identify as women but experience menstruation. It is also possible that they may feel further exclusion due to some cultural or religious beliefs. Since they are not the target audience for the push to end period poverty, it is crucial to make sure they are not neglected and that the reform they require is also achieved (Tibrewala, 2024). Additionally, girls with disabilities who menstruate may face increased difficulty in obtaining the necessary period products as well as maintaining personal hygiene. It can often be more difficult for those with disabilities to change products. With a lack of private bathrooms, it only becomes more impossible. It is also possible that disabled women may face a higher risk of infection due to difficulties they face with achieving good menstrual hygiene (Tibrewala, 2024). When considering disabled women, the work of Tanzila Khan is unforgettable, and it is necessary to continue to raise awareness regarding this issue. It is important to continue work like hers to bring attention to marginalized communities. 

Period poverty is not just a women’s health issue—it’s a human rights issue. Menstrual inequality is a deeply rooted issue stemming from both cultural and government inaction. The widespread perception of menstruation as impure and shameful, influenced by both religion and culture, has led to widespread exclusionary practices against women. These include a lack of education, limited access to menstrual products, and inadequate policies failing to support young girls, women, and other menstruating individuals. The cultural taboos, reinforced through generations of sexist beliefs, shape societal attitudes and influence public policies, increasing the difficulty girls and women face when trying to access the resources needed for their health and dignity. As a result, millions of women and girls in South Asia struggle with period poverty, are forced to use unhygienic alternatives, and miss out on education and employment opportunities. The issue of period poverty stems from a place of misogyny, which can be seen in far more reproductive issues than just menstrual hygiene management. While there are several things that need to be addressed in South Asian countries, such as the exclusive responsibility women carry for birth control, the many reproductive conditions that affect menstruation, and maternal mortality, progress must begin with resolving period poverty. In the patriarchal societies that make up South Asia, it is crucial that men participate in this movement, as they hold the power. As long as half the population is held back by shame, silence, and systemic neglect, no true progress towards equality can be achieved. Though the stigma surrounding menstruation is deeply embedded in South Asian culture, it is not immovable. A multifaceted approach is necessary, one that addresses both the cultural stigma and systemic barriers to access. Many people, organizations, and countries have already begun working towards improving access to affordable period products and clean and hygienic spaces, but there remains much work to be done. Without cultural and policy reform, many South Asian women will continue to suffer and face hindrance in their well-being, education, and professional development. A future where young girls can menstruate fearlessly and with dignity, attend school, and grow up to become independent women who can work and teach others about menstruation without shame is not just a dream, but a necessity.

References 

Sustainable Development. (n.d.). Retrieved December 2, 2025, from 

https://sdgs.un.org/#goal_section 

Ali, T. S., Ali, S. S., Nadeem, S., Memon, Z., Soofi, S., Madhani, F., Karim, Y., Mohammad, S., & Bhutta, Z. A. (2022). Perpetuation of gender discrimination in Pakistani society: Results from a scoping review and qualitative study conducted in three provinces of Pakistan. BMC Women’s Health, 22, 540. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-022-02011-6 

Ayyar, K. (2019, February 13). Oscar-Winning Short Film Challenges India’s Period Taboos. TIME. https://time.com/5526055/india-period-end-of-sentence-oscars-2019/ 

Cohen, I. (2020). Menstruation and Religion: Developing a Critical Menstrual Studies Approach. In C. Bobel, I. T. Winkler, B. Fahs, K. A. Hasson, E. A. Kissling, & T.-A. Roberts (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies. Palgrave Macmillan. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565592/ 

Ejaz, S. S., & Ara, A. A. (2011). GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN PAKISTAN. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 50(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.46568/jssh.v50i1.304 

Free period products. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2025, from 

https://www.gov.scot/policies/poverty-and-social-justice/access-to-free-period-products/ 

Garg, S., & Anand, T. (2015). Menstruation related myths in India: Strategies for combating it. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 4(2), 184–186. 

https://doi.org/10.4k103/2249-4863.154627 

Girlythings.pk. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2025, from https://girlythings.pk/

Hamid, A., & Ahmed, A. M. (2011). An Analysis of Multi-dimensional Gender Inequality in Pakistan. 

Hashim, I. (1999). Reconciling Islam and Feminism. Gender and Development, 7(1), 7–14.

How Kenya Became A World Leader In Menstrual Pad Distribution: Goats and Soda: NPR. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2025, from 

https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/05/10/476741805/what-kenya-can-teach-t he-u-s-about-menstrual-pads 

If Men Could Menstruate, by Gloria Steinem, at MUM. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2025, from http://www.mum.org/ifmencou.htm 

India scraps tampon tax after campaign. (2018, July 21). 

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-44912742 

Jaafar, H., Ismail, S. Y., & Azzeri, A. (2023). Period Poverty: A Neglected Public Health Issue. Korean Journal of Family Medicine, 44(4), 183–188. https://doi.org/10.4082/kjfm.22.0206 

‘Mama Why Aren’t You Praying?’ (2019, April 10). MAMANUSHKA. 

https://mamanushka.com/how-to-truthfully-explain-periods-to-your-young-muslim-child/ 

Mann, S., & Byrne, S. K. (2023). Period Poverty from a Public Health and Legislative Perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(23), 7118. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20237118 

Perera, S., Ramani, S., Joarder, T., Shukla, R. S., Zaidi, S., Wellappuli, N., Ahmed, S. M., Neupane, D., Prinja, S., Amatya, A., & Rao, K. D. (2024). Reorienting health systems towards Primary Health Care in South Asia. The Lancet Regional Health - Southeast Asia, 28, 100466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lansea.2024.100466

Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding Period Poverty: Socio-Economic Inequalities in Menstrual Hygiene Management in Eight Low- and Middle-Income Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 

Sabarimala Temple Entry. (n.d.). Supreme Court Observer. Retrieved April 13, 2025, from https://www.scobserver.in/cases/indian-young-lawyers-association-v-state-of-kerala-sabari mala-temple-entry-background/ 

School girls in Bangladesh learn that periods are nothing to be ashamed of | UNICEF South Asia. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2025, from 

https://www.unicef.org/rosa/stories/school-girls-bangladesh-learn-periods-are-nothing-be-a shamed 

Sen, S. (2019, March 24). 15 girls, women died in chhausheds in 13 yrs. The Himalayan Times. https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/15-girls-women-died-in-chhausheds-in-13-yrs 

Seyed Hosseini, A. S. (2018). Unpreparedness, impurity and paradoxical feeling: Menstruation narratives of Iranian women. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 32(6). https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2018-0008 

Shuvra, M. F. R. (2021, May 30). Breaking the Taboo: Managing Menstrual Hygiene at School. The Good Feed. 

https://blog.brac.net/breaking-the-taboo-managing-menstrual-hygiene-at-school/ 

Sumpter, C., & Torondel, B. (2013). A Systematic Review of the Health and Social Effects of Menstrual Hygiene Management. PLoS ONE, 8(4), e62004. 

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004

The Cost of a Period: The SDGs and Period Poverty. (n.d.). SDG Knowledge Hub. Retrieved April 14, 2025, from 

https://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/generation-2030/the-cost-of-a-period-the-sdgs-and-period poverty/ 

Tibrewala, M. (2024). Transgender persons and structural intersectionality: Towards menstrual justice for all menstruators in India. Indian Journal of Medical Ethics, 9(2), 142–146. https://doi.org/10.20529/IJME.2024.015 

Vaughn, E. (2019, December 17). Menstrual Huts Are Illegal In Nepal. So Why Are Women Still Dying In Them? NPR. 

https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/12/17/787808530/menstrual-huts-are-illeg al-in-nepal-so-why-are-women-still-dying-in-them 

Wang, C. C.-L. (2022, October 12). Male birth control options are in development, but a number of barriers still stand in the way. The Conversation. 

http://theconversation.com/male-birth-control-options-are-in-development-but-a-number-of -barriers-still-stand-in-the-way-186537 

Women in politics: 2025. (2023, March 7). UN Women – Headquarters. 

https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2025/03/women-in-politics-map 2025 

Young people are stamping out period stigma. (n.d.). Plan International. Retrieved April 13, 2025, from https://plan-international.org/case-studies/period-stigma-is-a-serious-matter/